Places like Bosnia Essay Example for Free

Places like Bosnia Essay The language used in both the passages are mostly narrative and the writers have elaborate the whole passages by comparing the two cities with many different things like human features, countryside, places like Bosnia. But in between the first passage there are some direct speeches like, it wassumpin in (line17-18) said by the cashier at white plains. There is a ironical language used in the first passage (line27) which says how not to kill their kids actually meaning how to bare or tolerate with their kids while they are stuck in the house and have to spent their whole day with them. The writers have used a lot of stylistic devices in the passages, one of them is simile which is used in both of the passages, like in passage one (line 22) which says This isnt Bosnia but it sure looks like it meaning that though New York is not Bosnia, the very cold weather and the heavy snowfall in New York does makes it look like Bosnia. On the other hand, simile used in the second passage is It was mounded like white eyebrows above the windows of the houses(line 2-3) reflecting a very beautiful image of the environment by comparing the thick snow above the window with the white eyebrows of human. Regarding metaphor, it is used only once in the first passage, that is Sanitary commissioner John Doherty, whomthe wayto fight war(line 24-26) which is the comparison between the Sanitary commissioner who removes the snows and the military general who knows how to fight the war. In this passage snowfall is compared with the war because it stopped everything in the city like airports, people and other working institutions and the sanitary commissioner with the military general. Whereas, there are two metaphors in the second passage. The first one is, and it had blown against the brick walls and stuck, making beards hang from the sills.(line 3-5). This metaphor compares the snow hanging from the sills of the houses with the beard, which also hangs from the chin of men and the other one is it was as if, in the night, the city had been removed and in its place an empty countryside of simple hills had appeared. (line 13-15) meaning that the city looks like a countryside because the snow had stopped every single voice and the countrysides are usually very calm and quiet place compare to the cities. The first passage starts with one of the literacy device called personification of word sleep on a non-living things like cities, which is One minute The City That never sleeps(line 1) through this line, the writer wants to tell us that the city of New York is one of the cosmopolitan cities in the world. While continuing the line, I come across one more stylistic device used in (line 1-2) again which says That Never sleeps was struggling to wake up from its ongoing New years hangover, this line shows the paradox of words never sleep and trying to wake up in the passage, meaning that the people are very tired and are struggling to wake up the next day after doing a lot of things like party on the new year eve. Whereas there is no paradox and personification used in the second passage, but there is another stylistic device called anamatopia used in (line 29) and that is The snows stopped the yip-yap, in which yip yap showing the sounds of people, birds and all other things like automobiles. Mr. Theroux also make used of alliteration like feathery from the flakes(line 25) which reflects the meaning that the snowfall had made the window panes look very soft. The writer also make use of assonance in the second passage, one of which is fence was encased (line 6), meaning that the snow is so thick that the fence is all covered with the snow and it looks like as if there is no fence. The other one is city was simplified meaning that the city now looks very simple like the countryside. There is one more stylistic device use by the writer in the second passage that is consonant, (line 21) which says, snow had shut out every sound making the sound S which usually reflects the sound shh! And which is usually use by the people to say Be quiet. Imagery is also use by the writer as one of the devices, (line 11-15)The Chelsea floursimple hills had appeared. Leading us to imagine the mill is all covered with the snow and it looks like a mountain now, likewise, the city also looks like a countryside having hills all around. Whereas in the first passage, Mr. Jones make use of repetition, as the word snow-hack is used again and again in lines (16,21 and 29) While analysing and comparing these two passages which are about the snowfall, but are written in such different ways that, in the first passage, New York city is described very disturbed and busy. Whereas the writer of the second passage has described London as a city which is very calm and still. The first passage seems very boring because Mr. Jones is repeatedly talking about the medias reaction towards this blizzard of 96. Whereas the second passage is quite interesting compare to the first one. On the whole the two passages are quite different from each other even though both of them are something about snowfall.

Tokyo Midtowns Architecture Development

Tokyo Midtowns Architecture Development The Tokyo Midtown was built between 2004-2007, which is a 101,000 square meter mixed-use development located in Roponggi, Tokyo, Japan. This project design was begun on August 2002 and the construction of the project was begun on May 2004 and completed on March 2007. There is a 400-year-old Hinokicho Park within the site was refurbished. The U.S. Army was stayed in this site as a barrack during World War II, the Japanese Defense Agency occupied this site after the army left. Consequently, Japanese Government sold the site in 2001 and Mitsui Fudosan won it. There was an archaeological exploration conducted during 2002 and 2003. During the exploring period, over fifty thousand pieces of pottery and two pieces of gold coins from Edo-period (1596-1698) were found out. The mixed-use development includes office, residential, retail, hotel, museum and leisure space. The total floor area of the development is 563, 800 square meters. There are over 50% of the project is designed to be open sp ace. Tokyo Midtown is located at two main street roads in roponggi district, there is a large lawn included in the site. Besides the class A office, residential units, High-end retail and hotel, and the museum, there is 50 percentage of site area are parks, plazas, promenades and streetscapes. In Tokyo, green space is only a private garden or scared space. The definition of green space is different from other cities. The green space used to be appreciated rather than utilizing. Citizens are not encouraged to use the green space and public events are not promoted to happen in such area. The primary developer, Mitsui Fudosan would like to change this old mind of green area and bring the new trend of Green Park. Thus, Tokyo Midtown was designed to be the new urban oasis in Roponggi district. Imperial Palace is not only the largest public open space in Tokyo, but also a good case to show the typology of traditional Japanese landscape. The parkland of Imperial Palace is surrounded by the wall, which isolates the palace from the city’s context. The cultural and historical valuable of the palace was abandoned, that the landscape of palace is cut off by the wall as an island, and there is no associated development next to the palace. This kind of traditional landscape promotes privacy and peaceful rather than connection between urban context. The developer would like to introduce a new landscape typology to the city. His approach is to create a unique sequence of open space which is new trend of connective landscape. The project’s developer promotes a new Japanese landscape design by creating a unique urban movement in the complex. The Tokyo Midtown a welcoming and attractive space which can stimulate the social and cultural interaction, thus the life of the place will be activated. This project is an architectural expression in landscape which can provide an open and green space for events. The historical green space Hinokicho Park is part of landscape and was refurbished. There are mainly three primary movements for the landscape in Tokyo Midtown. Firstly, the existing park is extended to the newer green areas. Secondly, there are a series of water features begin at the plaza. Thirdly, the water features flow down toward the greenery. There were 40 mature cherry trees preserved from the old site and transplanted on new site. Those trees are used to create a new cherry promenade by connecting the entry to Hinokicho Park. There are over thousands of visitors attracted to here for gathering and celebrating the cule of seasons, during the blossom season of cherry. In recent years, podium type development becomes the main new typology of large-scale development, especially in Hong Kong. The advantage of this typology is to provide a convenient and efficient connection from the upper level to the mass transit by the footbridge network. However, this typology has been produced less vibrant street life. The functional relationship between building and urban street grid has been lost. The public space has been separated from the existing neighborhood, thus the development has been isolated from urban street. Tokyo Midtown is a successful large-scale development with podium and tower that diminish the drawback of podium design. It undertakes a more sustainable approach to the new large-scale development. The development of Tokyo Midtown has achieved the sustainable design approach by several criteria as below: First of all, the development of Tokyo Midtown took the opportunity to integrate this new development into the existing areas by creating great places which can improve the original district and bring a long-term value. This place-making approach is achieved by promoting the public spaces with landscape. The sense of space is created by adding the attractive street furniture and public art in the landscape, such as the lush mature tree canopy in the entrance. This canopy can emphasize the existing site characteristic and enhance the site’s cultural and historical value. The landscape design improves the flexibility of space, so that public and private events will be promoted in order to facilitate the social interaction and vitality in this place. For example, the cherry promenade provides the linkage to the Hinokicho Park and also a place for gathering and celebrating the beauty of the trees during the bloom season. Thousands of visitors attract by it and go there with a blan ket, picnic, and drinks. The high quality design of Tokyo Midtown activates the existing space and brings economic incomes, and reflects the character of the surrounding area. This mix-used development incorporated hotel, office, residential, retail, restaurants, museum and parks. It provides a small community for people to live, work and enjoy their leisure time. Besides, the Tokyo Midtown introduces the pedestrian connectivity in both physical and psychological way. Visitors can experience a rich and vibrant pedestrian through visiting the tree-lined street and pleasant walkway. The lining of trees refurbishes the existing subway stop and redirects the ground passenger to the new exit at Tokyo Midtown. The place-making approach is also strengthened by providing high-quality public realm. It lets wide range of activities happen in this area. The unique identity landmarks, the 54 storeys Mori Tower has been incoporated in the whole development which is the tallest building in Tokyo. It increases the attractiveness of the destination. Secondly, Tokyo Midtown has well integrated with the infrastructure and the surrounding transport network. It provides a high standard connection to the transit and improves the connection between site and surrounding area at the ground level. Tokyo Midtown is not a project only concern the spatial quality within the site boundary, but also to provide the mix-used development with a wider site context and great impact on surrounding area. Citizens criticize that walled developments issue would be raised as the project with infrastructure is easily being isolated from the urban due to the poor integration of surrounding. This project includes 5 buildings, a high-end retail, luxury department, class A office space, luxury department, medical center. These 5 buildings surround a skyscraper with 248m height. The whole development is well integrated to the adjacent park and the Roppongi railway station. Roppongi railway station is a famous station along the Toei Oedo Line. Tokyo Midtown p rovides a successful access to the exit of railway station through the spatial arrangement of the open space. There is good public transport connection provided. The Roppongi railway station is well connected to the public transport interchanges within the Tokyo Midtown. The site is quite near the Roppongi Hills development which is less than 0.8 kilometer. The Roppongi Hill is surrounded by the vehicle-dominated road infrastructure and connects to podium of Tokyo Midtown. The majority of the edges are connected to the street level, it breaks down the traditional podium language. This project has well integration between land use and the transport in both physical and social aspects. Sustainable strategy Large-scale development usually bring negative impact on surrounding area or the wider context, as developer usually only focus on designing the area within the site, the adjacent area may not be their concern. Tokyo Midtown is a large-scale development which has been well integrated with the surrounding area. The design of this project is base on the sustainable development principles and the urban design guidelines, so that it will keep integrating and sustainable in a long-term period. The resource efficiency and environmental friendly approach is also adopted in development. The floor area of the whole development is concentrated in one quadrant of the site, so that the urban park area can be maximized. There is more than 40 percent of the site area is designed as an urban park which act as a main connection between the site and the community greenbelt. Tokyo Midtown promotes sustainability at the neighborhood and district levels, the spatial quality of the pedestrian environment at the street level is enhanced. As a result, the walkability and the livability within the site area and also the district are gradually improved. The location and proportion of program of the whole development is concerned to improve the sustainability in environmental, social and economic aspect. There are over 150 shops and restaurants offered in the high-end retail area, 500 luxury residential units, several office towers, a Ritz-Carlton hotel, 800-seat conservation center and an art museum provided in development, which can benefit the district in social and economic way. The large green open space which occupies 40 percent of site area can benefit the district in environmental way. The open space is designed to guide visitor walk from surrounding streets and sidewalk to the site. A sense of â€Å"on the ground† is promoted by touching the earth and nature. There are some view corridors, transparent material, bridges and plazas visually open and connect to the open spa ce in order to lead the visitor from the park to the nature. The design of water feature is to lead the visitors to the park and guide them down though meandering pathway to the 21_21 Design Museum and the traditional Japanese Garden. New district ‘s image Before the completion of Tokyo Midtown, Roppongi was a well-known district as a night town. Roponggi was a place which is full of entertainment hub and with abandoned traditional neighborhood. The developer Mitsui Fudosan would like to change the public perception of Roppongi district from a night town to an update image which is a vitalized daytime district. Tokyo Midtown is a development to provide a balance mix of business and living place to the district, in which the cultural amenities will be highly respected. Moreover, Tokyo Midtown is a hope as business and economy revival of Japan, it designed to represent the best characteristic of Japanese society by the mixed-use development. The Japanese government treats it as a priority urban redevelopment area†. This mixed-use development has integrated with a public park , which promotes an environmental friendly and commercial active attraction in this district, thus it benefit to the entire neighborhood and enhance the econom ic value of Roppongi. To match with this large green park, the famed Suntory Museum of Art was relocation. Consequently, the green park, museum, Tokyo National Art Center and Roppongi Hill will be well connected. The community park is merged with the existing greenbelt and connects to those abandoned nearby green space such as the gorunds of Tokyo government cemetery and a Shinto religious shrine.

Study And Overview Of The Scientific Calculator Computer Science Essay

Study And Overview Of The Scientific Calculator Computer Science Essay The first scientific calculator that included all of the basic features above was the programmable Hewlett-Packed HP-9100A released in 1968, though the Wang LOCI-2 and the Mechatronics Mathatron had some features later identified with scientific calculator designs. The HP-9100 series was built entirely from discrete transistor logic with no integrated circuits, and was one of the first uses of the CORDIC algorithm for trigonometric computation in a personal computing device, as well as the first calculator based on reverse Polish notation entry. HP became closely identified with RPN calculators from then on, and even today some of their high-end calculators (particularly the long-lived HP-12C financial calculator and the HP-48 series of graphing calculators) still offer RPN as their default input mode due to having garnered a very large following. The HP-35 introduced on February 1, 1972, was Hewlett-Packards first pocket calculator and the worlds first handheld scientific calculator. Like some of HPs desktop calculators it used reverse Polish notation Introduced at US$395, the HP-35 was available from 1972 to 1975. HP continues to develop and market high-end scientific calculators, like the HP-35s and HP-49 series, which have been favored by scientists and engineers, in labs, offices, as well as in the field. INTRODUCTION The calculator was written by Rolf Hawarth in early 1996. A scientific calculator is a type of electronic calculator, usually but not always handheld, designed to calculate problems in science (especially physics), engineering, and mathematics. They have almost completely replaced slide rules in almost all traditional applications, and are widely used in both education and professional settings. A fully featured scientific calculator with proper operator precedence is implemented, including trig functions and logarithms, factorials, 12 levels of parentheses, logs to base 2 (a handy function for information entropists!), bitwise logical operator, hex, octal, binary and ASCII display. The calculator is written in Java Script and you are welcome to view the JavaScript source (visible within the HTML page) for personal educational purposes as long as you recognize that it is copyrighted and not in the public domain. This calculator is now available as part of Humming birds Enterprise Information Portal. All enquiries regarding licensing the calculator should be directed to Hummingbird Ltd. Basic Functions Modern scientific calculators generally have many more features than a standard four or five-function calculator, and the feature set differs between manufacturers and models; however, the defining features of a scientific calculator include: Scientific notation Floating point arithmetic logarithmic functions, using both base 10 and base e trigonometric functions (some including hyperbolic trigonometry exponential functions and roots beyond the square root quick access to constants such as pi and e In addition, high-end scientific calculators will include: hexadecimal ,binary, and octal calculations, including basic Boolean math complex numbers fractions statistics and probability calculations equation solving calculus conversion of units physical constants While most scientific models have traditionally used a single-line display similar to traditional pocket calculators, many of them have at the very least many digits (10 to 12), sometimes with extra digits for the floating point exponent. A few have multi-line displays, with some recent models from Hewlett-Packed, Texas Instruments, Casio, Sharp, and Canon using dot matrix displays similar to those found on graphical calculators. Addition The addition (sum function) is used by clicking on the + button or using the keyboard. The function results in a+b. Subtraction The subtraction (minus function) is used by clicking on the - button or using the keyboard. The function results in a-b. Multiplication The multiplication (times function) is used by clicking on the x button or using the keyboard * key. The function results in a*b. Division The division (divide function) is used by clicking on the / button or using the keyboard / key. The function results in a/b. Sign The sign key (negative key) is used by clicking on the (-) button. The function results in -1*x. Square The square function is used by clicking on the x^2 button or type ^2. The function results in x*x. Square Root The square root function is used by clicking on the x button or type sqrt(). This function represents x^.5 where the result squared is equal to x. Raise to the Power The raise to the power (y raised to the x function) is used by clicking on the y^x button or type ^. Natural Exponential The natural exponential (e raised to the x) is used by clicking on the e^x button or type exp(). The result is e (2.71828) raised to x. Logarithm The logarithm (LOG) is used by clicking on the LOG button or type LOG(). Natural Logarithm The Natural logarithm (LN) is used by clicking on the LN button or type LN(). Inverse Multiplicative inverse (reciprocal function) is used by pressing the 1/x button or typing inv(). This function is the same as x^-1 or dividing 1 by the number. Exponent Numbers with exponents of 10 are displayed with an e, for example 4.5e+100 or 4.5e-100. This function represents 10^x. Numbers are automatically displayed in the format when the number is too large or too small for the display. To enter a number in this format use the exponent key EEX. To do this enter the mantissa (the non exponent part) then press EEX or type e and then enter the exponent. Factorial The Factorial function is used by clicking the ! button or type !. PI PI is a mathematical constant of the ratio of a circles circumference to its diameter. Permutation The permutation function is used by clicking the nPr button. Combination The combination function is used by clicking the nCr button. Cube The cube function is used by clicking the x3 .The function results in x*x*x. Cube root The cube root function is used by clicking 3|x . Trig function Various trig functions are involved as:- Sine, cosine, tangent etc. Inverse trig functions Various inverse trig functions are also involved as:- sin`x,cos`x,tan`x etc. PROPOSED SYSTEM The following documentation is a project the Name of the term paper allotted. It is a detailed summary of all the drawbacks of the old system and how the new proposed system overcomes these shortcomings. The new system takes into account the various factors while designing a new system. It keeps into the account the Economical bandwidth available for the new system. The foremost thing that is taken care of is the Need and Requirements of the User. DESCRIPTION Before developing software we keep following things in mind that we can develop powerful and quality software PROBLEM STATEMENT Problem statement was to design a module: Which is user friendly Which will restrict the user from accessing other users data? Which will help user in viewing his data and privileges? Which will help the administrator to handle all the changes? FUNCTIONS TO BE PROVIDED: The system will be user friendly and completely menu driven so that the users shall have no problem in using all options. The system will be efficient and fast in response. The system will be customized according to needs. View Add Delete Modify SYSTEM REQUIRMENTS Operating system: MS Windows XP or Windows Vista Language: C Language Processor: Pentium IV Processor RAM: 512 MB Hard disk: 5 GB Flowchart Welcome to main menu of Scientific Calculator Enter Your Choice? On calculator Do your any task Do you want to continue? START Trignometery(sin,cos) Inverse (1/x) STOP Switch off calculator Yes No Uses Scientific calculators are used widely in any situation where quick access to certain mathematical functions is needed, especially those such as trigonometric functions that were once traditionally looked up in tables; they are also used in situations requiring back-of-the-envelope calculations of very large numbers, as in some aspects of astronomy, physics, and chemistry. They are very often required for math classes from the junior high school level through college, and are generally either permitted or required on many standardized tests covering math and science subjects; as a result, many are sold into educational markets to cover this demand, and some high-end models include features making it easier to translate the problem on a textbook page into calculator input, from allowing explicit operator precedence using parentheses to providing a method for the user to enter an entire problem in as it is written on the page using simple formatting tools. APPLICATIONS In most countries, students use calculators for schoolwork. There was some initial resistance to the idea out of fear that basic arithmetic skills would suffer. There remains disagreement about the importance of the ability to perform calculations in the head, with some curricula restricting calculator use until a certain level of proficiency has been obtained, while others concentrate more on teaching estimation techniques and problem-solving. Research suggests that inadequate guidance in the use of calculating tools can restrict the kind of mathematical thinking that students engage in. Others have argued that calculator use can even cause core mathematical skills to atrophy, or that such use can prevent understanding of advanced algebraic concepts. There are other concerns for example, that a people could use the calculator in the wrong fashion but believe the answer because that was the result given. Teachers try to combat this by encouraging the student to make an estimate of the result manually and ensuring it roughly agrees with the calculated result. Also, it is possible for a child to type in à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬â„¢1  ÃƒÆ'-  Ãƒ ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬â„¢1 and obtains the correct answer 1 without realizing the principle involved. In this sense, the calculator becomes a crutch rather than a learning tool, and it can slow down students in exam conditions as they check even the most trivial result on a calculator. FUTURE SCOPE OF THE PROJECT Our project will be able to implement in future after making some changes and modifications as we make our project at a very low level. So the modifications that can be done in our project are: To make it screen touch so no need to touch key buttons and one more change which can we made is to add snaps of the person who use it.

An Analysis of Communism Essay -- Exploratory Essays Research Papers

An Analysis of Communism Different forms of government have existed through the ages, including capitalism, monarchy, socialism, dictatorship, and theocracy. Communism is a government that developed in the early nineteen hundreds. The theory of communism is to create a government under which all people are equal. Communism hasn't achieved its goal to make all people equal. The leaders of communist nations have shown an insatiable desire for power. They take what the workers produce and give back only what is necessary (Orwell 10). Purges took place in communist governments under the leadership of dictators such as Joseph Stalin and Mao Zedong. Under Stalin's rule "30,000 communists [were] killed in Paris" (Joseph Stalin). George Orwell narrowly escaped Stalin's purges in Spain where "many of [his] friends were shot, and others spent a long time in prison or simply disappeared" (Orwell 5). In this purge Stalin successfully executed Trotsky, who had been a key figure in establishing communism in the U.S.S.R (Joseph Stalin). Communist governments are unstable ... An Analysis of Communism Essay -- Exploratory Essays Research Papers An Analysis of Communism Different forms of government have existed through the ages, including capitalism, monarchy, socialism, dictatorship, and theocracy. Communism is a government that developed in the early nineteen hundreds. The theory of communism is to create a government under which all people are equal. Communism hasn't achieved its goal to make all people equal. The leaders of communist nations have shown an insatiable desire for power. They take what the workers produce and give back only what is necessary (Orwell 10). Purges took place in communist governments under the leadership of dictators such as Joseph Stalin and Mao Zedong. Under Stalin's rule "30,000 communists [were] killed in Paris" (Joseph Stalin). George Orwell narrowly escaped Stalin's purges in Spain where "many of [his] friends were shot, and others spent a long time in prison or simply disappeared" (Orwell 5). In this purge Stalin successfully executed Trotsky, who had been a key figure in establishing communism in the U.S.S.R (Joseph Stalin). Communist governments are unstable ...

Description of eclipse in The Eclipse by Virginia Woolf :: essays research papers

Description of eclipse in "The Eclipse" by "Virginia Woolf" Virginia Woolf, English novelist, essayist, and critic has beautifully portrayed the natural phenomenon of eclipse. She has also enlightened the importance of the sun. She has narrated the essay dramatically and has regarded sun as an actor that was going to come on the stage to perform as if a drama was going on. The sky served as a stage. She has made the scene vivid and ravishing by the usage of colors, images and similes. The way she has described it is so highly coloured and realistic that the readers visualize the eclipse to be occurring before their eyes. People were anxiously going towards a hilltop from where all would view the sun with reverence. People had gathered on the hilltop and stood in a straight line that it seemed they were statues standing on the edge of the world. As the sun rose, clouds glowed up. Light gleamed and peered over the rim of the clouds. The sun raced towards the point where eclipse had to take place. But the clouds were impeding it. The sun with a tremendous speed endeavoured to escape the mist. At some point it came forth then again was shrouded by the fleecy clouds. The sun then appeared hollow as the moon had come in front of it. A substantial proportion of the Sun was covered and the loss of daylight became noticeable. The writer has efficaciously described the sun’s efforts to break free from the cloudy hurdle. She has continuously personified sun as it was putting its best efforts to make its face appear before the world. The clouds were stifling the sun’s speed. The sanctified twenty-four seconds had begun but still the sun was entrapped and was striving to disencumber itself from the clump of clouds. â€Å"Of the twenty-four seconds only five remained, and still he was obscured.† The time of the eclipse was passing and it seemed that the sun was losing. It was continuously obliterated by the clouds. The colours of the valleys seemed to disappear. Everything was fading as ‘All the colour bega n to go from the moor.’ The colours were changing, â€Å"The blue turned to purple, the white became livid as at the approach of a violent but windless storm. Pink faces went green, and it became colder than ever.† The light and warmth were vanishing.

Major Depressive Disorder: Theories and Therapies Essay

1. Major Depressive Disorder Definition and Symptoms Major Depressive Disorder may be diagnosed as one or more episodes of a Major Depressive Episode. Symptoms of a major depressive episode include depressed mood, diminished interest or pleasure in activities, weight changes, sleep problems, slowing of speech or agitation, fatigue or loss of energy, feelings of worthlessness and/or guilt, difficulties in thinking, concentrating, or indecisiveness, and thoughts of death, suicide, or suicide attempts. These symptoms are not due to another medical or psychological reason, and they cause clinically significant distress or functional impairment. 4th ed. , text rev. ; DSM-IV-TR; American Psychiatric Association, 2000) The cause of depression is not completely understood. It is, most likely, a combination of reasons, which may include chemical imbalances in the brain, psychological, or environmental factors, and genetics. Severe life stressors, such as divorce, or job loss, often contribute to depression. In a twelve month period, 6. 7% of the U. S. population is depressed. Of those that are depressed, 30. 4% are severe, or 2. 0% of the total U. S. population. Lifetime prevalence in the U.  S. is 16. 5% of the population. (National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH), Prevalence) Women are 70% more likely than men to experience depression during their lifetime. (NIMH, Demographics) The National Institute of Mental Health also reports that Blacks are 40% less likely than Whites, to experience depression in their lifetime. The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates the total number of years a person may lose to illness, disability, or death. They have rated Unipolar Depression number one in diseases and disorders, with a loss of 10. years, well above heart disease and cancer. (NIMH, Leading Individual Diseases/Disorders) 2. Cognitive Theory and Symbolic Interaction Theory of Major Depressive Disorder Cognitive Theory (CT) Early negative experiences are overgeneralized and become a part of one’s schema. The theory, developed by Beck, asserts that one’s negative and dysfunctional view of one’s self leads to depression. Thought distortions, such as absolute thinking, selective abstraction, and personalization, set one up for failure, and perpetuate the negative thinking, leading to depression. Maladaptive thinking and behavior may be learned or caused by inexperience. Symbolic Interaction Theory (SIT) A person gives meanings to objects, experiences, and to self. Social interaction with others helps to define those meanings. Symbols and meanings develop and change over time. Self-conception comes from one’s social interactions with other’s, and how one believes the other person perceives them. If a person believes others are looking at them and judging them negatively, self perception is negative. Depression is caused by negative thinking and perceptions. Etiology: Compare and Contrast In both Cognitive Theory and Symbolic Interaction Theory, dysfunctional and negative thinking about self, form the basis for the depression. Both theories involve thoughts and feelings formed from internal and external stimuli. In both theories, beliefs are based on interpretations rather than reality. In CT, the depression is more self centered and self inflicted. It is more internally based and controlled, while SI depends more on negative external stimuli. Symbolic Interaction Theory adds the concept of interaction with others, while Cognitive Theory does not. Cognitive Theory suggests cognition and behavior are learned and built upon, while Symbolic Interaction Theory suggests thoughts and actions taking place in the present and are dynamic, changing according to the present experience. Dynamics: Compare and Contrast Cognitive Theory and Symbolic Interaction Theory both assert that beliefs about self will strongly determine the way the individual behaves. CT and SIT both assert that people process external information and then apply it to themselves. Both involve irrational thinking. In both theories, the epressed person makes thought leaps, assumptions that are not supported. In Cognitive Theory, one may assume that because they had a negative experience in one situation, it will always be experienced the same way. In Symbolic Interaction Theory one may assume that an interaction with a person, or certain types of people will always be the same. CT may involve a situation the person experiences alone or with others, while SIT naturally would include interaction with others. Cognitive Theory of Depression builds and grows stronger with each negative experience, while Symbolic Interaction is more in the present. The negative and distorted thoughts of a depressed person are reactionary. c. Motivation for change: Compare and Contrast In Cognitive Theory and Symbolic Interaction Theory, motivation for change would include the need for love, support, and interaction with others. We are social beings and need that interaction. Depression separates one from others because it becomes mentally and physically difficult to function. With that separation comes confirmation of the distorted, negative self beliefs. Ruminations drag the depressed person further away from truth (cognitive) and people (interaction). Major Depression is not an illness one can pull out of alone. Although it would be possible without professional help, it wouldn’t be possible without other people. There would be no purpose to change. In Cognitive Theory, motivation for change would include a positive self image and the ability to enjoy one’s life. Motivation for change in Symbolic Interaction Theory would include positive self image and enjoying one’s life, as well as rejoining society, and having a positive impact on others. 3. Major Depressive Disorder Interventions  According to the American Psychiatric Association (APA) practice guidelines, acute phase treatment for patients with major depressive disorder may include pharmacotherapy, depression-focused psychotherapy, the combination of medications and psychotherapy, or other somatic therapies such as electroconvulsive therapy (ECT), transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), or light therapy. The treatment chosen should depend on the severity of symptoms, other illnesses or stressors present, patient and doctor preference, and past treatment outcomes. In their study of depressed patients, Budd, James, & Hughes (2008) found that patients felt Cognitive Behavioral Therapy helped them more than any other therapy. Pharmacotherapy Antidepressant medication is generally the first treatment recommended for depression. Some of the first drugs used to treat depression were tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs), such as Elavil. They affect the neurotransmitters norepinephrine and serotonin. They are used less often because of side effects. Monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs), such as Narwal, were also used in early treatments for patients with treatment resistant depression. Because of food interactions and the need for dietary restrictions, these medications are also used less often. Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), such as Prozac, work by increasing the amount of the neurotransmitter serotonin available to the brain. Seratonin and Norepinephrin reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs), such as Effexor, increase the amount of serotonin and norepinephrine neurotransmitters that can be used by the brain. Mirtazapine, a brand name is Remora, is a non-adrenegic and specific serotonergic antidepressant. Buproprion, found in the brand Wellbutrin, is a norepinephrine-dopamine reuptake inhibitor. All of these drugs may be used in the treatment of depression. (NIMH) Psychotherapy Psychotherapy, sometimes referred to as talk therapy, educates a patient about mental illness and provides tools, or strategies, to improve the patient’s mental health, as well as social functioning. There are several different types of psychotherapy. Psychotherapy for Major Depression is usually used in conjunction with medication. Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) Developed by Aaron Beck in the 1960’s, CBT helps the patient understand how thoughts can influence behavior. CBT helps a person focus on his or her current problems and how to solve them. The patient learns how to identify distorted or unhelpful thinking patterns, recognize and change inaccurate beliefs, relate to others in more positive ways, and change behaviors accordingly. (NIMH) Interpersonal Psychotherapy (IPT) Interpersonal Psychotherapy was developed in the 1980’s, by Gerald Kerman and Myrna Weissman, to treat depression. (Markowitz & Weissman, 2012) Mood, and it’s relation to social circumstances, is examined, and the patient learns how to react positively to negative circumstances. It is time limited and has been proven to be an effective treatment for depression. (Markowitz & Weitzman, 2012) Rational Emotive Behavioral Therapy (REBT) Similar to CBT, Rational Emotive Behavioral Therapy focuses on changing cognitive, emotional, and behavioral problems. The therapy was developed by Albert Ellis, Ph. D. , in 1955. Ellis asserts, â€Å"It is largely our thinking about events that leads to emotional and behavioral upset. Working with the present in mind, the patient is encouraged to look at the negative thinking that leads to negative emotions and behaviors†. Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy (MBCT) Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy was developed by Drs. Zindel Segal, Mark Williams, and John Teasdale. It is an eight-session program based on eastern spirituality. Developed for use in preventing depression relapse, it focuses on the patient’s awareness of personal thought patterns and emotions. Knowing the ruminations and self-critical thinking that precedes depression, the patient is taught how to divert the depression. (American Psychological Association) Somatic Therapies Deep Brain Stimulation (DBS) Electrodes are placed on specific areas of the brain that stimulate the brain continuously through a pulse generator implanted under the skin. A long term follow up study by Kennedy and his colleagues (2011), found social functioning and physical health continued to improve for up to six years after the treatment. The response rate was high at 60%, and the remission rate was 30%, based on the Hamilton Depression Rating Scale. (Kennedy et al. , 2011) Repetitive Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (rTMS) Repetitive Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation was first used in a study for treatment of depression in 1993, and approved by the FDA in 2008. The neural pathway, from the frontal cortex of the brain to the limbic area, is stimulated. This pathway is believed to be deficient in depressed patients. A pulsating, alternating magnetic field above the scalp sends an electric current through the brain. The electrical current flows to the cortex, depolarizing neurons, and sends signals to the limbic region. This procedure is preformed while the patient is awake. It produces minor twitches, has few side effects, and is non-invasive. The study I read showed a 65% improvement in symptoms. (George & Post, 2011) Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT) Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT), or shock therapy, is usually used on treatment-resistant depression. A seizure is produced by an electrical shock to the brain. This shock changes the chemical balance in the brain. A patient generally has several procedures a week at first. Procedures are reduced to once a week and then once a month. The amount of ECT needed varies with each person. Memory loss and other cognitive effects sometimes occur, but usually diminish with time. (National Institute of Mental Health) It is important that a skilled Psychiatrist perform the procedure because the effectiveness of the treatment depends on the accuracy of the physician’s skills. (Lisanby, 2007) Vagus Nerve Stimulation (VNS) Vagus nerve stimulation sends electrical pulses from a surgically implanted generator in the chest to the vagus nerve. Every few seconds a pulse runs through the nerve to the part of the brain that is thought to effect mood. (NIMH) Complimentary and Alternative Therapies The National Institute of Mental Health also lists St. John’s wort, S-adenosyl methionine (sometimes called SAMe), omega-3 fatty acids, light therapy, and acupuncture as complimentary and alternative therapies. Botox has also been studied as a treatment for depression, with the theory that suppressing frowning in a depressed person can decrease the depression. (Kruger, T. H. C. , et al. , 2012) 4. Theory and Treatment Links Cognitive Theory and Cognitive Behavioral Therapy a) Etiology Maintenance of depression by negative, automatic thoughts, and withdrawing from others, is the basis for Cognitive Theory. In Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) for depression, the client is taught to replace negative cognitive thoughts and behaviors with positive ones. Sterling Moorey (2010) developed a maintenance model of depression with six cycles depicted as a â€Å"vicious flower†. It is a tool to help clients understand depression: what causes it, and how it is maintained, as well as cognitive and behavioral changes to ameliorate it. The links between Cognitive Theory and Cognitive Behavioral Therapy can be seen clearly in the model as described below. b) Dynamics Testing negative thoughts and beliefs replaces automatic negative thinking. Problem solving and developing compassion replaces ruminating and self-attacks. Mood recognition replaces mood/emotions. Becoming physically active, and taking one step at a time, replaces withdrawal and avoidance. Experimenting with helpful behaviors replaces unhelpful behaviors. Motivation and physical symptoms are replaced by taking care of oneself and exercising. (Moorey, 2010) A link between Cognitive Theory and Cognitive Behavioral Therapy, is demonstrated when exercise is used as a treatment for depression. Exercise engages the patient mentally and physically. It changes behavior, increases health, and encourages interaction with others. It is positive change that can be used for intervention and prevention. (Martinson, 2008) c) Motivation for Change Cognitive Theory of Depression asserts that dysfunctional and negative beliefs about self causes and maintains depression. Gaining a positive self image based on cognitive behavioral changes will enable a depressed person to participate in, and enjoy life. Looking at difficulties and life events from a positive perspective, allows one to believe success is possible, and behave accordingly. Symbolic Interaction Theory and Interpersonal Therapy a. Etiology Looking at events from a dysfunctional and negative view, based on our interactions with others, perpetuates negative thoughts and feelings, according to the Symbolic Theory of Major Depressive Disorder. This was demonstrated in a study by Vranceanu, Gallo, and Bogart (2009). They found that women with depressed symptomatology reported more negative personal interactions and less positive support, than women who were not depressed. The negative reactions the depressed women received, may serve as reinforcers for dysfunctional beliefs. (p. 468) Interpersonal Therapy (IPT) links mood to the clients circumstances, helping the client to understand what triggers the depression. Often, negative circumstances involve a relationship, or some event that involves the client’s interpersonal functioning. (Markowitz and Weissman, 2012) Liverant, Kamholz, Sloan, & Brown (2011), showed there is a correlation between rumination and other forms of emotional suppression, such as avoidance and withdrawal. They found the more often emotional suppression was used, particularly rumination, the greater the intensity of sadness. b. Dynamics The negative thoughts and feelings the client has perceived from interactions with others, as well as personal relationship problems, are evaluated by the therapist. IPT is time-limited, and solution based. The therapist is understanding, supportive, and encouraging. Emotional acceptance of negative experiences may serve as a tool to reduce rumination, thus decreasing the symptoms of depression. (Liverant, et al. 2011) Interpersonal skills are taught so clients can learn to interact with others in more positive ways. c. Motivation for Change Motivation for change in both Symbolic Interaction Theory and Interpersonal Therapy is a return to a positive mood, the ability to enjoy life, and to interact with others in a positive way. Negative, dysfunctional beliefs attained through interaction with others, as demonstrated in Symbolic Interaction Theory, can b e changed by learning person skills to interact more positively with others, thus providing positive response and reducing depression.

Isaac Asimov Essay

Isaac Asimov, the pre-eminent popular-science writer of the day and for more than 40 years one of the best and best-known writers of science fiction, died yesterday at New York University Hospital. He was 72 years old and lived in Manhattan. He died of heart and kidney failure, said his brother, Stanley. Mr. Asimov was amazingly prolific, writing nearly 500 books on a wide range of subjects, from works for preschoolers to college textbooks. He was perhaps best known for his science fiction and was a pioneer in elevating the genre from pulp-magazine adventure to a more intellectual level that dealt with sociology, history, mathematics and science. But he also wrote mysteries, as well as critically acclaimed books about the Bible, physics, chemistry, biology, astronomy, limericks, humor, Shakespeare, Gilbert and Sullivan, ancient and modern history, and many other subjects. Mr. Asimov’s first book, â€Å"Pebble in the Sky† (Ballantine), a science-fiction novel, was published in 1950. His first 100 books took him 237 months, or almost 20 years, until October 1969, to write. His second 100, a milestone he reached in March 1979, took 113 months, or about 9 1/2 years — a rate of more than 10 books a year. His third 100 took only 69 months, until December 1984, or less than 6 years. â€Å"Writing is more fun than ever,† he said in a 1984 interview. â€Å"The longer I write, the easier it gets.† He once explained how he came to write â€Å"Asimov’s Guide to Shakespeare† (Crown). It began, he said, with a book called â€Å"Words of Science.† † ‘Science’ led to ‘Words on the Map,’ † he remarked, â€Å"which took me to ‘The Greeks,’ which led me to ‘The Roman Republic,’ ‘The Roman Empire,’ ‘The Egyptians,’ ‘The Near East,’ ‘The Dark Ages,’ ‘The Shaping of England’ and then ‘Words From History.’ It was an easy jump to ‘Words in Genesis,’ which brought on ‘Words From the Exodus.’ That led me to ‘Asimov’s Guide to the Old Testament,’ and then ‘The New Testament.’ So what was left except Shakespeare?† His usual routine was to awake at 6 A.M., sit down at the typewriter by 7:30 and work until 10 P.M. In â€Å"In Memory Yet Green,† the first volume of his autobiography, published in 1979, he explained how he became a compulsive writer. His Russian-born father owned a succession of candy stores in Brooklyn that were open from 6 A.M. to 1 A.M. seven days a week. Young Isaac got up at 6 o’clock every morning to deliver papers and rushed home from school to help out in the store every afternoon. If he was even a few minutes late, his father yelled at him for being a folyack, Yiddish for sluggard. Even more than 50 years later, he wrote: â€Å"It is a point of pride with me that though I have an alarm cloc k, I never set it, but get up at 6 A.M. anyway. I am still showing my father I’m not a folyack.† He Learns to Read, Then Teaches Sister Isaac Asimov was born Jan. 2, 1920, in the Soviet Union, near Smolensk, the son of Judah and Anna Rachel Berman Asimov. He was brought to the United States in 1923 and was naturalized in 1928. He taught himself to read before he was 5 years old, using the signs on his Brooklyn street. A couple of years later, with a little help from his father, he taught himself to read Yiddish. When he was 7, he taught his younger sister to read. He skipped several grades and received a high-school diploma when he was 15. After discovering science fiction on the magazine rack in his father’s store — and overcoming his father’s objections to fanciful subject matter — he tried writing science fiction himself and sold his first story when he was 18. The story, â€Å"Marooned Off Vesta,† ran in the October 1938 issue of Amazing Stories. Three years later, in 1941, he sold a story called â€Å"Nightfall† to Astounding Science Fiction, then the top magazine in the field. It was edited by John W. Campbell Jr., whose ability to find talented writers was largely responsible for what is considered the Golden Age of science fiction in the 1930’s and 40’s. Almost 30 years after â€Å"Nightfall† was published, the Science Fiction Writers of America voted it the best science-fiction short story ever written. Astounding Science paid a cent a word, Mr. Asimov once recalled. â€Å"So for a 12,000-word story I expected $120. I got a check for $150 and thought Mr. Campbell had made a mistake.† But when Mr. Asimov called to tell him, â€Å"he said the story had seemed so good to him he gave me a bonus of one-quarter cent a word.† Mr. Asimov graduated from Columbia University in 1939 with a bachelor of science degree, and earned an M.A. in 1941 and a Ph.D. in chemistry there in 1948. The next year, he accepted an offer from Boston University’s School of Medicine to teach biochemistry. â€Å"I didn’t feel impelled to tell them that I’d never had any biochemistry,† he recalled in a 1969 interview. â€Å"By 1951 I was writing a textbook on biochemistry, and I finally realized the only thing I really wanted to be was a writer.† He was made an associate professor of biochemistry in 1955 and a professor in 1979, although he stopped teaching in 1958 and only occasionally went back to the university to lecture. A Science Fiction Of Verve and Clarity Mr. Asimov’s science-fiction novels and stories won many awards: five Hugos, given by the fans, and three Nebula Awards, given by his fellow writers. His â€Å"Foundation Trilogy† (all published by Doubleday) — which takes place in a future galactic empire and consists of â€Å"Foundation† (1951), â€Å"Foundation and Empire† (1952) and â€Å"Second Founda tion† (1953) — was given a Hugo in 1966 as Best All-Time Science-Fiction Series. Among his nonfiction works, â€Å"Asimov’s New Guide to Science† is considered one of the best books about science for the layman. Reviewing â€Å"Foundation’s Edge† (Doubleday), a sequel to the trilogy and the first of Mr. Asimov’s books to make the New York Times best-seller list, the critic Gerald Jonas said in The New York Times Book Review in 1982: â€Å"He writes much better than he did 33 years ago — yet he has lost none of the verve he brought to this series when he and the galaxy were much younger. What more could one ask?† â€Å"Foundation’s Edge† won a Hugo in 1983 as the best science-fiction novel of the year. In recent years, Mr. Asimov wrote â€Å"Foundation and Earth† (1986) and â€Å"Prelude to Foundation† (1988). A final novel, â€Å"Forward the Foundation,† is to be published by Bantam Books later this year. Mr. Asimov himself made no great claims for his work. â€Å"I make no effor t to write poetically or in a high literary style,† he said in 1984. â€Å"I try only to write clearly and I have the very good fortune to think clearly so that the writing comes out as I think, in satisfactory shape.† â€Å"I never read Hemingway or Fitzgerald or Joyce or Kafka,† he once wrote. â€Å"To this day I am a stranger to 20th-century fiction and poetry, and I have no doubt that it shows in my writing.† No Typist or Agent, And No Airplanes He wrote his first drafts on his typewriter, and short articles and final drafts on a word processor, and he rewrote everything only once. â€Å"It’s not out of conceit,† he said. â€Å"But I have lots of stuff I’m committed to write and if I linger lovingly I won’t be able to write at all.† Not everything, however, fell into place easily. He once did a children’s book in a day, but the Shakespeare book took two years. The book he considered his favorite, â€Å"Murder at the A.B.A.† (1976), a mystery novel in which he himself was a character, took seven weeks; â€Å"The Gods Themselves† (1972), a science-fiction novel that won both the Hugo and the Nebula awards, took seven months. â€Å"I do all my own typing, my own research, answer my own mail,† Mr. Asimov once said. â€Å"I don’t even have a literary agent. This way there are no arguments, no instructions, no misunderstandings. I work every day. Sunday is my best day: no mail, no telephones. Writing is my only interest. Even speaking is an interruption.† Although he wrote about space travel through countless universes and light years, Mr. Asimov himself refused to fly. â€Å"Isaac says that he loves to fly into space and span the galaxies,† the editor Ben Bova once remarked. â€Å"But only in his imagination.† Among Mr. Asimov’s other well-known science-fiction works were â€Å"I, Robot† (1950), in which he invented his famous Three Laws of Robotics, which govern the relation of robots to their human masters: robots may not injure a human or, by inaction, allow a human to be harmed; robots must obey humans’ orders unless doing so conflicts with the fir st law; robots must protect their own existence unless doing so conflicts with the first two laws. Robot and galactic-empire themes eventually expanded and intertwined in 14 novels. Secret of Success: It’s All in the Genes He also wrote many nonfiction works and magazine articles on a wide range of subjects and was the editorial director of a magazine named after him — Isaac Asimov’s Science Fiction Magazine — for which he wrote the editorials in each issue. He received the James T. Grady Award of the American Chemical Society in 1965 and the American Association for the Advancement of Science-Westinghouse Science Writing Award in 1967. Recently Mr. Asimov said he had had a prostate operation and was cutting back on his writing. He suspended his monthly column in Fantasy and Science Fiction magazine, to which he had contributed some 400 columns and articles over 33 years. Writing 10 or more books a year was standard procedure for Mr. Asimov, and he continued his busy pace after a heart attack in 1977 and triple bypass surgery in 1983. â€Å"I have been fortunate to be born with a restless and efficient brain, with a capacity for clear thought and an ability to put that thought into words,† he once remarked. â€Å"None of this is to my credit. I am the beneficiary of a lucky break in the genetic sweepstakes.† Mr. Asimov once told an interviewer about sadly contemplating death and the end of conscious thought. But, he said, he cheered himself with the thought that â€Å"I don’t have to worry about that, because there isn’t an idea I’ve ever had that I haven’t put down on paper.†